Introduction to The Jewish Synagogue
Johannes Buxtorf was born on December 1564 to one of the leading families in Kamen, a territorial town in Westphalia. His grandfather was the Burgermeister of Kamen for thirty years, and his father was a pastor in the city from 1556 until his death in 1581. Buxtorf’s father played an important role in the introduction of Protestantism in Kamen between 1562 and 1567.
During his childhood, Buxtorf attended the Latin school in Hamm (Westphalia) where he also received his first Hebrew instruction. He then studied at the Archigymnasium in Dortmund, and in 1585, when he was 21, he moved to study at the Gymnasium at Herborn. The academy at Herborn had been recently founded to further Calvinist education by Count John VI, the head of the county, himself a new convert to Calvinism.
At Herborn, Buxtorf studied theology, where he took courses in Hebrew based on the Psalms and the books of Solomon, in theology based on the Old Testament prophets, and in systematic theology based on Calvin’s Institutes. From his album amicorum, we learn that in March 1588, after three years at Herborn, Buxtorf traveled to Heidelberg, Basel, and Zurich. He then traveled back to Basel where Johann Jacob Grynaeus, the senior theology professor, convinced him to stay. Recognizing Buxtorf’s potential, Grynaeus also recommended Buxtorf as a teacher for his friend Leo Curio’s children. Buxtorf stayed with the Curio family for six years and later married one of their daughters.
A few months after his arrival, Grynaeus asked Buxtorf, who had not yet received his Master of Arts degree, to accept a professorship of Hebrew as a member of the arts faculty. . In 1590 Buxtorf became a regular professor of Hebrew, and in this year he also completed his final requirement for graduation, a public disputation. The subject of his disputation was not related to Hebrew, but was, rather, a philosophical topic: whether or not animals are wholly without reason. Since the disputation was not preserved, we do not know what Buxtorf’s position regarding this fascinating subject was.
Buxtorf stayed in Basel until his death in 1629, despite the poor salary which he earned (Basel University has the reputation of paying the lowest wages of any German university), and despite the multiple offers he received to move to other universities in Europe, including one from one of the leading institutions of the time, Leiden University. It was in Basel where he furthered his career and became known as the leading Hebraist of his time.
Buxtorf was a prolific author, and he published about twenty different works, all related to Judaica and Hebraica. His contribution to Hebrew learning can be divided into three main categories: pedagogical, philological, and theological. Among the pedagogical works one can find Hebrew grammars, dictionaries, manuals of Hebrew poetry and letter writing, and a guide to Hebrew bibliography. His main philological contributions are his edition of Bomberg’s Biblia Rabbinica and his edition of Isaac Nathan’s Hebrew טעמי המקרא Concordance. His theological works include his work on ta’amei hamikra Tiberias, and his book Juden Schul which is a description of the everyday life of the Jews, and is the source of our text.
Synagoga Judaica Das ist Juden Schul, first published in 1603, quickly became popular and was translated into Latin, Dutch, and English. In the nineteenth century it was even translated into Hungarian. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the book appeared in at least 21 different editions, more than any of Buxtorf’s other work, which attests to the popularity and importance of this work. In contrast to Buxtorf’s other publications, which were first written and published in Latin, Synagoga Judaica was originally published in German. This tells us that Buxtorf intended that this work be read by a different audience.
After a long introduction in which Buxtorf discusses the articles of the Jewish faith, the remainder of Juden Schul is devoted to a detailed description of various aspects of the customs and ceremonies of the contemporary Jews. Thus, it includes chapters on different holy days, such as Sabbath, Passover, Rosh haShana, Yom Kippur, Sukkot, and Purim, as well as chapters on life cycle ceremonies like birth, circumcision, engagements, weddings, death, and burial.
Buxtorf’s book is not the first attempt to describe the everyday life of the contemporary Jews. His work follows those of f earlier authors like Johannes Pfefferkorn and Victor von Carben, (both published in 1508), and especially Anthonius Margaritha’s Der Gantz Judisch Glaub (1530) and Ernst Ferdinand Hess’ Juden Geissel which was first published in 1598. However, all these authors were Jews who had converted to Christianity. Buxtorf’s Juden Schul is the first work belonging to this genre that was written by a Christian from birth. This is a crucial point for understanding Buxtorf’s agenda for writing his book, and as I will argue, there are differences between his attitude toward Jewish ceremonies and customs and the attitude of the converts that preceded him.
In an article that was published almost twenty years ago, Ronnie Hsia described this genre of writing about Jewish everyday life as Christian ethnography of Jews and Judaism. He mentioned a few works that belong to this genre, including Buxtorf’s book, but failed to relate the broadness of this phenomenon. Actually, the works of Buxtorf and his predecessors are just the tip of the iceberg. After the publication of Buxtorf’s work, about sixty other works belonging to this genre were published. Many of these books relate to life cycle ceremonies, including the wedding, and they shed light on Christian perception and attitudes toward Judaism. For almost two hundred years, though, the Juden Schul was the most important single work belonging to this genre, as is evident from the extensive republication of the work. By analyzing Buxtorf’s text we can get a closer look at the way Christians looked at Jewish ceremonial life in general, and the way Jewish marriage and family life were perceived in particular.
Hsia, in the article mentioned above, points to the similarity between the rise of modern ethnography and the writings about the Jews. While I agree with Hsia that there are parallels between the subjects discussed in books about the Jews and books about other nations and religions, I think that there are also profound differences between them in regards to the sources they are using and especially in regards to their agenda. I argue that that the use of the term ethnographic to describe Christian writings about Jews is problematic because of the obvious religious bias shown by the authors of these works. I would suggest that we not describe this literature simply as ethnographies, but rather, that we use a new term and describe it as polemical ethnographies.
In a recent article, Diane Wolfthal claimed that Christians chose to ignore ceremonies related to the Jewish family, since describing them required the Christians to give a positive account of the Jewish religion. Based on the content of Buxtorf’s text and that of many other ethnographic works I believe that this assumption needs re-evaluation.
From the historical perspective, I argue that the Christian writings about the Jews in the early modern period reflect a shift from writing about Judaism to writing about Jews and their lives, including references to Jewish family life. In addition, and this is despite Buxtorf’s claim, I argue that Christian interest in the Jewish way of life led Jews to be more open toward Christians, since they were willing to admit Christians to their ceremonies, and we have testimonies about Christians attending events such as circumcision, wedding ceremonies, and Passover meals. This excerpt raises several questions:
How accurate is Buxtorf’s description? (Compare this text to, Juspa of Worms’ text on this website)
What are the sources that he is using?
What are the points that he chooses to focus on?
What can that tell us about his agenda?
What is Buxtorf’s attitude toward the Jews, and what stand in the focus of his criticism? How does Buxtorf portray the Jewish family?
What does he see as important in the family?
Bibliography
Ronnie Po-Chia Hsia, “Christian Ethnographies of Jews in Early Modern Germany,” The Expulsion of the Jews, 1492 and After, eds. Raymond B. Waddington, Arthur H. Williamson. (New York: Garland, 1994), 223-235.
Diane Wolfthal, “Imagining the Self: Representations of Jewish Ritual in Yiddish Books of Customs,” Imagining the Self, Imagining the Other: Visual Representation and Jewish-Christian Dynamics in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Period, ed. Eva Frojmovic, (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 189-211.
Source 1 Translation
The Jewish Synagogue Synagoga Judaica
Johannes Buxtorf, 1603
Translated by Alan D. Corré
Chapter Twenty-eight
About the Wedding of the Jews
When the engagement of two parties occurs, many Jews are invited, young and old, and they gather in a big room and each of the young Jews has a new [earthenware] pot or jar in his hand. Then one of them comes and reads the marriage document, that N. son of N., and N. daughter of N. have been betrothed to each other, and one shall give to the other as morning gift so and so much, and the wedding shall be on such and such a day. However, if one party does not keep what is put down in this Tenóim [lit. “conditions”] or marriage document, then such party shall pay fifty florins to the other as a penalty.
After this, they wish one another luck, and say Massal Tobh, good luck, and as soon as the others hear it, they throw their pots and jars to the ground, and break them, which means happiness and abundance.
Then they all leave, and one stays at the door, to give them sweet wine to drink, and sometimes some sweets too. The next eight days, neither bride nor groom leaves the house. However, many young men come to the groom to eat and drink with him, and to amuse him. They prove this with the story of Samson, who was given thirty young men when he wanted to make a wedding.
On the day before the wedding, the bride has to take a bath in cold water, and submerge completely under the water. She is accompanied there by other women with music and noisemaking, and also led back again the same way, so that everybody should hear, and know that she is a bride. Some leap and dance in front of her, but pious women do not commend that.
Bride and groom send each other a wedding-belt. The bridegroom’s belt, namely the one which the bride has to send to him, should be fitted with silver clasps, and the bride’s belt with golden clasps. When once I asked for the origin of this custom, I was told that silver signifies the <Semen virile, which is white, and gold signifies the Semen muliebre. This is a worthless ratio, [reason] like everything that comes from their shuls.
On the day when she is to be consecrated, she puts on her bridal dress, and makes herself beautiful in the Jewish fashion. She is led into a special room by the women, who sing lovely wedding-songs before her. Then they seat her on a beautiful chair, braid her hair, put on a beautiful head covering, and put a veil before her eyes, so that she may not look at the groom, on account of modesty and good breeding, just like Rebecca when her groom came to meet her. Gen. 24.65 The women take special pleasure in braiding her hair, singing and dancing, and entertaining the bride to make her happy, and they think they are doing a fine deed for God in this. In order to convince the pious women of this, the very wise rabbis write in the Talmud that God himself made braids for Eve in Paradise, and he sang for her and danced with her. The chachámim and very wise rabbis derive it from these words Gen. 2.22: And he led her to Adam, that is, God brought her to Adam just like a bride, beautifully tricked out and braided, with dancing and leaping. You can also read in the Pirke or Capita R. Eliezer, that God himself waited on Adam and Eve at their wedding, and made the sky for them, under which bride and groom might be blessed. And the angels played the fife and drum for dancing, and danced themselves. The Jew who blasphemously wrote the book Brandspiegel some years ago wrote thus in chapter 34. It was printed for the first time in Crakow, Poland in the German language in Hebrew letters. It is a strict book about proper behavior, and is held in high regard by the Jews. In the Talmud Niddah 45b I can only find that God made plaits or braids for Eve, and it is proved by what is written Gen. 2.22 Vajíbhen hael, [sic] that is, and God built, i.e., braided. Therefore in some places, according to the Jews, the braids, or plaits, Binjasa, are called a building, because the Hebrew word Banah, from which the previous word is derived, means to build. Now Moses says explicitly, and not with dark [=not explicit] words: And God built from the very rib, which he took from Adam, one whom he called woman, and led her to Adam. This would mean, according to the very wise rabbis, that God made braids for Eve, and led her to Adam with leaping and dancing. Were there a spark of right understanding and knowledge of God’s word in these people, they would be ashamed of their blasphemous words before the whole world. But this is in vain, because they are struck with blindness by God, and they desire no light. Let us go further.
When the public consecration is to take place, four young boys carry a canopy, or cover, attached to four posts, to the place where the consecration is to take place, in the street, or in a garden, under the open sky. The groom follows with several men, then the bride with the women accompanied by lutes and other instruments, all under that canopy.
(They call it Chuppah, cover) and everybody calls out Báruch hábba Blessed be the one who comes. The bride is led three times around the groom (just as the cock goes around the hen) with the statement Jer. 31.22: the woman will go around the man. Then the groom takes the bride and leads her around in a circle, and then the people throw wheat or other grain over them, and they call out Prú urefú, be fruitful and multiply. They say this means peace and abundance in their household, as it is written in Psalm 147.14: He brings peace to your borders and satisfies you with the best wheat. In some places it is the custom to mix money with the wheat, which the poor Jews pick up. The bride stands at the right side of the groom, as is written in Psalm 45.10: The bride stands at your right in naught but precious gold. Her face should look towards the south, because the rabbis taught in the Talmud: The one who puts her bed between the south and the north, so that her face looks towards the south, will be blessed with many sons. The rabbi who performs the ceremony puts the corner of cloth that the groom wears around his neck (they call it Talles) on the bride’s head following the example of Ruth who said to her cousin Boaz Ruth 3.19: Spread your wings over your handmaiden. And in the Prophet it said Ezek 16.8: And I spread my wings over you and covered your shame. The Rabbi then takes a glass of wine, and says a prayer of praise over it (they call it Birchas ærusin, Benedictio desponsatorum) [=the blessing of the betrothed] in which he praises God that they are promised for each other in marriage, and he gives the bride and groom to drink from it. If the bride is a virgin they usually take a narrow glass, for a widow a wide glass,and for a poor little creature an earthen vessel. Everyone knows the origin of this. Now the rabbi takes a ring from the groom. It should be pure gold, with no precious stones on it. He calls several witnesses to show them and determine if it is good and worth the money, and he puts it on the second finger of the bride and reads publicly aloud the marriage document. Then he takes another glass of wine, and says a prayer over it (they call it Birchas nissuin) [=wedding blessing] in which he thanks God that they have now taken each other, and he gives them to drink again. After that the groom takes the first glass and throws it against a wall or on the ground, so that it breaks in remembrance of the destroyed temple at Jerusalem. In some places they strew ashes on the head of the groom to remember the burning of the Temple. For this reason the groom has a black cap on his head, such as the people in mourning are accustomed to wear, and the bride has her head wrapped in a black mantle (very elegant – you could scare little children with it) as a sign that even in their highest joy they should also be sad, because of the destruction of the city and Temple. (Yes, the clothes are mourning clothes, but the heart does not mourn, as experience proves). It is also written in the Psalm 2.11: Be afraid with trembling. They hold the consecration under the open sky as a sign that they should multiply like the stars in heaven.
After the blessing they sit down at the table. First the groom has to sing a long prayer, the more beautifully he sings, the more pleasing he is to the bride, who sits next to him. It is done more for love and pride, and to please the bride, than to show devotion to God.
Meanwhile, someone calls out to prepare and bring the chickens. A chicken and an egg are put before the bride. The groom gives the bride a piece of the chicken, and after that everyone, women and men reach out with full hands. They tear up the food like hungry dogs. Whoever gets the biggest piece is the best at the table. They eat it with their hands, and soon someone comes and snatches it from the hands of another, or even from his mouth, and they make a lot of noise and they laugh, just to make the bride and groom happy with all this. The egg is not boiled. They throw it at each other, or, better yet, at the face of a Christian who happens to be watching. They explain to the bride that it is a sign that she will give birth without pain, with joy and ease, just as a chicken lays an egg with joyful cackling.
After this enjoyable entertainment, the real meal is offered. They are happy, and do not think much about Jerusalem. They dance and leap, as everyone who has seen it knows.
At the end of the wedding they hold a dance which they call the Mitzva dance, that is a dance which is held at a wedding because of the law of God. The most eminent person present takes the groom by the hand, and they follow one another. Also the preeminent woman takes the bride, and all women follow, and they all dance round in a large circle. It is a horrible tossing about, and with that they conclude the joyous wedding feast.
The wedding usually lasts eight days, and when the Sabbath comes during the celebration, they do it great honor by extra dancing. This is because the Sabbath is also called a bride, as we mentioned before.
Above all, they write, everybody should be warned not to invite uncircumcised Christians to the wedding. King Solomon says in Proverbs 14.10: And in your joy no stranger should mingle. However, this is a perversion of the text. It says something different and has a completely different meaning. They also write: When the good angels see that strangers, that is, Christians, are at the wedding, they flee, and evil spirits come, and do damage. They cause quarrels, disagreements, and accidents. Some people may break their necks or legs, or even kill somebody. So you should be aware how welcome Christians are at their weddings. If one drinks to the other they respond: Lechajim tobhim, to good life, that is the drink should serve your good health. But if they do not wish well to another person, such as a Christian, then they understand by these words Kelalah, that is, a curse, because the word Kelalah, counted in the kabbalistic way, has the same numerical value as the previous two words, namely 165, and they understand with it, the person should drink damnation with it. [l=30, ch=8, j=10 (twice), m=40, t=9, o=6, bh=2, i=10, m=40: total=165. k=100, l=30 (twice), h=5: total=165.] These and similar Jewish blessings and secret malice will come to light at some other time, God willing.